The Communist Manifesto

The Communist Manifesto was initially published in the turbulent years of 1848-49, when societies throughout Europe tried to replace aristocratic, authoritarian governments with more democratic and representative institutions. The Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries had introduced incredible advances in production, transportation, and communication, but these advancements also created terrible working conditions for the working class. Men, women, and children worked long hours in dangerous conditions for little reward before the establishment of labor rights and protections for workers.

In response, socialist movements emerged to push back against exploitation by the new capitalist class, also known as the bourgeoisie. One such organization of workers, the Communist League, commissioned the German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels to write The Communist Manifesto, originally titled Manifesto of the Communist Party. Marx was the primary author, while Engels edited the text and assisted Marx financially. First written in German, the Manifesto was initially published in London in 1848. Its authors wanted to present a working set of guidelines and principles for their European socialist allies and to offer a text which communists all over the world could use to agitate for their cause. 

Unlike other political pamphlets circulating at the time, The Communist Manifesto sought to contextualize the struggle of the 19th century working class within the history of human civilization. The Manifesto is ambitious: it suggests a practical plan for the liberation of the working class as well as a new way of studying and understanding the progress of history. Class struggle, the authors argue, is the key to understanding how all human societies have operated. A stronger minority has always oppressed a weaker minority, but soon the working class (the proletariat) will defeat the capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) via violent revolution, erasing classes and ending the struggle forever.

Part 1, “Bourgeois and Proletarians,” prescribes a total overhaul of society. The longest and most robust section of the Manifesto, it introduces Marx’s theory of the progressive nature of history and delves into the relationship between the property-owning capitalist class, identified as the bourgeoisie, and the downtrodden working class, identified as the proletariat. Part 2, “Proletarians and Communists,” contains a defense of communism against various common criticisms, including the suggestion that communism enables laziness, destroys individuality and freedom, and is detrimental on a social level (i.e. to women and the family). Part 3, “Socialist and Communist Literature,” is the section most rooted in the political situation of Marx and Engels’ time. It examines rival socialist or communist movements of the day and articulates why they are less desirable than Marxism. Part 4, “Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Opposition Parties,” acts as a conclusion, reiterating the main themes of the text and identifying Germany as the likely setting for the imminent proletarian revolution.

Marx’s prose is intended to inspire anger and action. Influenced by classical rhetoricians like the Roman orator Cicero, his style is persuasive and aggressive; Marx rarely passes up the opportunity to insert a pointed jab. Beyond its rhetorical sharpness, the Manifesto is famed for its colorful, fantastical language; references to “spectres” and “sorcerers” contrast with Marx’s dense and difficult concepts.  

Despite the specific historical context in which it was published, the Manifesto has lasting appeal. One of the most widely circulated texts of all time, the Manifesto has had an unprecedented impact on social and political theory and fields as wide-ranging as literary studies, education, and the hard sciences. Though Marx wrote in the 1840s, when society was still newly industrialized, the questions he raised are still relevant today. What obligations do we have towards other members of society? How do we balance self-fulfillment and happiness against the pervasive) power of consumerism? What human costs are we willing to bear in the name of convenience and profit, and how far are we willing to go in the name of making life better for everyone?

This study guide refers to the Harriman Economic Classics edition of the text.